Photonic mems and structures

ABSTRACT

An interference modulator (Imod) incorporates anti-reflection coatings and/or micro-fabricated supplemental lighting sources. An efficient drive scheme is provided for matrix addressed arrays of IMods or other micromechanical devices. An improved color scheme provides greater flexibility. Electronic hardware can be field reconfigured to accommodate different display formats and/or application functions. An IMod&#39;s electromechanical behavior can be decoupled from its optical behavior. An improved actuation means is provided, some one of which may be hidden from view. An IMod or IMod array is fabricated and used in conjunction with a MEMS switch or switch array. An IMod can be used for optical switching and modulation. Some IMods incorporate 2-D and 3-D photonic structures. A variety of applications for the modulation of light are discussed. A MEMS manufacturing and packaging approach is provided based on a continuous web fed process. IMods can be used as test structures for the evaluation of residual stress in deposited materials.

CROSS REFERENCE TO RELATED APPLICATIONS

This application is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No.09/413,222, filed Oct. 5, 1999, which is incorporated herein byreference in its entirety. This application is related to U.S. Pat. No.5,986,796 and U.S. Pat. No. 5,835,255, which are both incorporated byreference herein in their entirety.

BACKGROUND

1. Field

This invention relates to interferometric modulation.

2. Description of the Related Technology

Interferometric modulators (IMods) modulate incident light by themanipulation of the optical properties of a micromechanical device. Thisis accomplished by altering the device's interferometric characteristicsusing a variety of techniques. IMods lend themselves to a number ofapplications ranging from flat panels displays and optical computing tofiber-optic modulators and projection displays. The differentapplications can be addressed using different IMod designs.

SUMMARY

In general, in one aspect, the invention features an IMod based displaythat incorporates anti-reflection coatings and/or micro-fabricatedsupplemental lighting sources.

In general, in one aspect, the invention features an efficient drivescheme for matrix addressed arrays of IMods or other micromechanicaldevices.

In general, in one aspect, the invention features a color scheme thatprovides a greater flexibility.

In general, in one aspect, the invention features electronic hardwarethat can be field reconfigured to accommodate different display formatsand/or application functions.

In general, in one aspect, the invention features an IMod design thatdecouples the IMod's electromechanical behavior from the IMod's opticalbehavior.

In general, in one aspect, the invention features an IMod design withalternative actuation means, some one of which may be hidden from view.

In general, in one aspect, the invention features an IMod or IMod arraythat is fabricated and used in conjunction with a MEMS switch or switcharray, and/or MEMS based logic.

In general, in one aspect, the invention features an IMod that can beused for optical switching and modulation.

In general, in one aspect, the invention features IMods that incorporate2-D and 3-D photonic structures.

In general, in one aspect, the invention features a variety ofapplications for the modulation of light.

In general, in one aspect, the invention features a MEMS manufacturingand packaging approach based on a continuous web fed process.

In general, in one aspect, the invention features IMods used as teststructures for the evaluation of residual stress in deposited films.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1A is a cross-section of a display substrate incorporating ananti-reflection coating and integrated supplemental lighting. FIG. 1Breveals another scheme for supplemental lighting.

FIG. 2 shows detail of the fabrication process of a micromachined arclamp source.

FIG. 3 illustrates a bias centered driving scheme for arrays of IMods ina display.

FIG. 4A is a diagram which illustrates a color display scheme based onthe concept of “base+pigment”. FIG. 4B reveals a block diagram of asystem that provides for field reconfigurable display centric products.FIG. 4C illustrates the concept as applied to a general-purposedisplay-centric product.

FIG. 5A is a diagram revealing an IMod geometry that decouples theoptical behavior from the electromechanical behavior, shown in theun-actuated state. FIG. 5B shows the same IMod in the actuated state.FIG. 5C is a plot showing the performance of this IMod design in theblack and white state. FIG. 5D is a plot showing the performance ofseveral color states.

FIG. 6A shows a diagram of an IMod that similarly decouples the opticalbehavior from the electromechanical, however the support structure ishidden. FIG. 6B shows the same design in the actuated state.

FIG. 7A illustrates an IMod design that utilizes anisotropicallystressed membranes, in one state. FIG. 7B shows the same IMod in anotherstate.

FIG. 8A is an illustration showing an IMod that relies on rotationalactuation. FIG. 8B reveals the fabrication sequence of the rotationalIMod design.

FIG. 9A is a block diagram of a MEMS switch. FIG. 9B is a block diagramof a row driver based on MEMS switches. FIG. 9C is a block diagram of acolumn driver based on MEMS switches. FIG. 9D is a block diagram of aNAND gate based on MEMS switches. FIG. 9E is a block diagram of adisplay system incorporating MEMS based logic and driver components.

FIG. 10A-10H show the structure, fabrication, and operation of a MEMSswitch.

FIG. 10I illustrates an alternative switch design.

FIG. 10J illustrates a second alternative switch design.

FIG. 11A is a drawing that shows examples of micro ring based 2-Dphotonic structure. FIG. 11B is a drawing of a periodic 2-D photonicstructure.

FIG. 12 is a diagram which revealing an example of a 3-D photonicstructure.

FIG. 13A is a drawing illustrating an IMod incorporating a microringstructure in the un-actuated state. FIG. 13B is the same IMod in theactuated state. FIG. 13C shows an IMod incorporating periodic 2-Dphotonic structure.

FIG. 14A illustrates and IMod design which acts as an optical switch.FIG. 14B shows a variation of this design that acts as an opticalattenuator.

FIG. 15A is a diagram of an IMod design that functions as an opticalswitch or optical decoupler. FIG. 15B illustrates how combinations ofthese IMods can act as a N×N optical switch.

FIG. 16 shows the fabrication sequence for a tunable IMod structure.

FIG. 17A illustrates how the tunable IMod structure can be incorporatedinto a wavelength selective switch. FIG. 17B further illustrates how thewavelength selective switch may incorporate solid state devices. FIG.17C illustrates how bump-bonded components may be intergated.

FIG. 18A is a schematic representation of a two-channel equalizer/mixer.FIG. 18B illustrates how the equalizer/mixer may be implemented usingIMod based components.

FIG. 19 is a diagram illustrating a continuous web-based fabricationprocess.

FIG. 20A-20G illustrate how IMod based test structures may be used astools for stress measurement.

FIGS. 21A-21E illustrate various types of discontinuous films which canbe used in an IMod structure.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Anti-Reflective Coating

An attribute of one previously described IMod design (the inducedabsorber design described in U.S. patent application Ser. No.08/554,630, filed on Nov. 6, 1995, and incorporated by reference) is theefficiency of its dark state, in which it can absorb as much as 99.7% oflight which is incident upon it. This is useful in reflective displays.In the described design, the IMod reflects light of a certain color inthe un-actuated state, and absorbs light in the actuated state.

Because the IMod array resides on a substrate, the potential forabsorption is diminished by the inherent reflection of the substrate. Inthe case of a glass substrate, the amount of reflection is generallyabout 4% across the visible spectrum. Thus, despite the absorptivecapability of the IMod structure, a dark state can only be as dark asthe front surface reflection from the substrate will permit.

One way to improve the overall performance of an IMod based display isby the incorporation of anti-reflection coatings (AR coatings). Thesecoatings can comprise one or more layers of dielectric films depositedon the surface of a substrate and are designed to reduce the reflectionfrom that surface. There are many different possible configurations forsuch films and design and fabrication is a well known art. One simplefilm design is a single coating of magnesium fluoride approximatelyone-quarter wave thick. Another example utilizes a quarter wave film oflead fluoride deposited on the glass, followed by a quarter wave film ofmagnesium fluoride, with yet a third example interposing a film of zincsulfide between the two.

FIG. 1A illustrates one way in which an AR coating may be incorporatedinto an IMod display to improve the performance of the display system.In FIG. 1A, AR coating 100, which, as stated, could comprise one or morethin films, is deposited on the surface of glass layer 102 bonded toglass substrate 106, on the opposite side of which is fabricated IModarray 108. The presence of AR coating 100 reduces the amount of incidentlight 109 reflected from the surface by coupling more of it into theglass layer 102. The result is that more of the incident light is actedupon by the IMod array and a darker display state can be obtained whenthe IMod is operating in the absorptive mode. The AR coating 100 couldalso be deposited directly on the surface of glass substrate 106 on theside opposite that of the IMod array.

Integrated Lighting

FIG. 1A also shows how supplemental lighting may be supplied to such adisplay. In this case an array of microscopic arc lamps, 104, isfabricated into glass layer 102. Arc lamps are efficient suppliers oflight. Historically, arc lamps have been fabricated using techniquesrelevant to the fabrication of ordinary light bulbs. A typical versionof such a lamp is described in U.S. Pat. No. 4,987,496. A glass vesselis built, and electrodes, fabricated separately, are enclosed in thevessel. After filling with an appropriate gas, the vessel is sealed.Although such bulbs may be made small, their method of manufacture maynot be suited to the fabrication of large monolithic arrays of suchbulbs.

Techniques used in the manufacture of micro mechanical structures may beapplied to the fabrication of microscopic discharge or arc lamps.Because of the microscopic size of these “micro-lamps”, the voltages andcurrents to drive them are significantly lower than those required tosupply arc lamps fabricated using conventional means and sizes. In theexample of FIG. 1A, the array is fabricated such that light 113 emittedby the lamps is directed towards the IMod array 108 by an inherentreflector layer 111, which is described below.

FIG. 2 provides detail on how one such lamp, optimized for a flat paneldisplay, could be fabricated. The sequence is described as follows. Asseen in step 1, glass layer 200 is etched to form a reflector bowl 201using wet or dry chemical etching. The depth and shape of the bowl aredetermined by the required area of illumination for each lamp. A shallowbowl would produce a broad reflected beam spread while a parabola wouldtend to collimate the reflected light. The diameter of the bowl couldvary from 10 to several hundred microns. This dimension is determined bythe amount of display area that can be acceptably obscured from theviewer's perspective. It is also a function of the density of the arrayof micro-lamps. Using standard deposition techniques, e.g., sputtering,and standard photolithographic techniques, a reflector/metal halidelayer 204 and sacrificial layer 202 are deposited and patterned. Thereflector/metal halide layer could be a film stack comprising aluminum(the reflector) and metal halides such as thallium iodide, potassiumiodide, and indium iodide. The metal halide, while not essential, canenhance the properties of the light that is generated. The sacrificiallayer could be a layer such as silicon, for example.

Next, electrode layer 206 is deposited and patterned to form twoseparate electrodes. This material could be a refractory metal liketungsten and would have a thickness that is sufficient to providemechanical support, on the order of several thousand angstroms. Thensacrificial layer 202 is removed using a dry release technique. Theassembly (in the form of an array of such lamps) is sealed by bonding toa glass plate like substrate 106 (shown in FIG. 1A) such that thereflector faces the plate. A gas, such as xenon, is used to backfill thecavities, formed by the lamps during the sealing process, to a pressureof approximately one atmosphere. This could be accomplished byperforming the sealing process in an airtight chamber that has beenpreviously filled with Xenon.

The application of sufficient voltage to the electrodes of each lampwill result in an electrical discharge, in the gas between the ends ofthe electrodes, and the emission of light 205 in a direction away fromthe reflector 204. This voltage could be as low as several tens of voltsif the gap spacing is on the order of several hundred microns or less.If the electrode material is deposited with minimal stress, thesacrificial layer, 202, will determine the position of the electrodeswithin the bowl. In this case, the thickness is chosen to position thedischarge at the focal point of the bowl. Should there be residualstress, which would cause the electrodes to move when released, thenthickness is chosen to compensate for this movement. In general thethickness will be some fraction of the depth of the bowl, from severalto tens of microns.

Referring again to FIG. 1A, the light is shown traveling along a path113. Thus light is emitted towards the IMod array, where it is acted onand subsequently reflected by the array along paths 110, towardsinterface 107 and the viewer 111.

The lamps may be fabricated without including the reflector layer sothat they may emit light omnidirectionally.

Lamps fabricated with or without the reflector may be used in a varietyof applications requiring microscopic light sources or light sourcearrays. These could include projection displays, backlights for emissiveflat panel displays, or ordinary light sources for internal (homes,buildings) or external (automobiles, flashlights) use.

Referring to FIG. 1B, an alternative supplemental lighting approach isshown. Light guide 118 comprises a glass or plastic layer that has beenbonded to substrate 112. Light source 116 which could comprise anynumber of emissive sources such as fluorescent tubes, LED arrays, or theaforementioned micro-lamp arrays, is mounted on opposite sides of thelight guide. The light 122 is coupled into the light guide using acollimator 120 such that most of the light is trapped within the guidevia total internal reflection. Scatter pad 124 is an area of the lightguide that has been roughened using wet or dry chemical means. Thescatter pad is coated with a material or thin film stack 126 whichpresents a reflective surface towards substrate 112 and an absorbingsurface towards the viewer 128.

When light trapped within the guide is incident upon the scatter pad,the conditions for total internal reflection are violated and someportion 129 of the light scatters in all directions. Scattered lightwhich would normally escape into the surrounding medium, i.e. towardsthe viewer, 128, is reflected into substrate 112 due to the presence ofthe reflective side of coating 126. Like the aforementioned micro-lamps,the scatter pads are fabricated in an array, with each pad dimensionedsuch that the portion of the display that it obscures from direct viewis hardly noticeable. While these dimensions are small, on the order oftens of microns, they can provide sufficient supplemental lightingbecause of the inherent optical efficiency of the underlying IMod array114. The shape of the scatter pad may be circular, rectangular, or ofarbitrary shapes which may minimize their perception by the viewer.

Addressing Elements in an Array

In order to actuate arrays of IMods in a coordinated fashion for displaypurposes, a sequence of voltages is applied to the rows and columns ofthe array in what is generally known as a “line at a time” fashion. Thebasic concept is to apply a sufficient voltage to a particular row suchthat voltages applied to selected columns cause corresponding elementson the selected row to actuate or release depending on the columnvoltage. The thresholds and applied voltages must be such that only theelements on the selected row are affected by the application of thecolumn voltages. An entire array can be addressed over a period of timeby sequentially selecting the set of rows comprising the display.

One simple way of accomplishing this is shown in FIG. 3. Hysteresiscurve 300 is an idealized representation of the electroptical responseof a reflective IMod. The x-axis shows applied voltage, and the y-axisshows amplitude of reflected light. The IMod exhibits hysteresisbecause, as the voltage is increased past the pull-in threshold, theIMod structure actuates and becomes highly absorbing. When the appliedvoltage is decreased, the applied voltage must be brought below therelease threshold in order for the structure to move back into theun-actuated state. The difference between the pull-in and releasethresholds produces the hysteresis window. The hysteresis effect, aswell as an alternative addressing scheme, is discussed in U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 08,744,253, filed on Nov. 5, 1996, and incorporatedby reference. The hysteresis window can be exploited by maintaining abias voltage Vbias, at all times, to keep the IMod In whatever state itwas driven or released into. Voltages Voff and Von correspond tovoltages required to actuate or release the IMod structure. The array isdriven by applying voltages to the columns and rows using electronicsknown as column and row drivers. IMods have been fabricated with apull-in threshold of 6 volts, and a release threshold of 3 volts. Forsuch a device, typical values for Vbias, Voff, and Yon are 4.5 volts, 0volts, and 9 volts respectively.

In FIG. 3, timing diagram 302 illustrates the kind of waveforms that maybe applied to acutate an array of IMods that exhibit a hysteresis curveresembling curve 300. A total of five voltages, two column voltages andthree row voltages, are required. The voltages are selected such thatVcol1 is exactly twice the value of Vbias, and Vcol0 is zero volts. Therow voltages are selected so that the difference between Vsel F0 andVcol0 equals Von, and the difference between Vsel F0 and Vcol1 equalsVoff. Conversely, the difference between Vsel F1 and Vcol1 equals Von,and the difference between Vsel F1 and Vcol0 equals Voff.

The addressing occurs in alternating frames 0 and 1. In a typicaladdressing sequence, data for row 0 is loaded into the column driversduring frame 0 resulting in either a voltage level of Vcol1 or Vcol0being applied depending on whether the data binary one or zerorespectively. When the data has settled, row driver 0 applies a selectpulse with the value of Vsel F0. This results in any IMods on columnswith Vcol0 present becoming actuated, and IMods on columns with Vcol1present, releasing. The data for the next row is loaded into the columnsand a select pulse applied to that row and so on sequentially until theend of the display is reached. Addressing is then begun again with row0; however this time the addressing occurs within frame 1.

The difference between the frames is that the correspondence betweendata and column voltages is switched, a binary zero is now representedby Vcol0, and the row select pulse is now at the level of Vsel F1. Usingthis technique, the overall polarity of the voltages applied to thedisplay array is alternated with each frame. This is useful, especiallyfor MEMS based displays, because it allows for the compensation of anyDC level charge buildup that can occur when only voltages of a singlepolarity are applied. The buildup of charge within the structure cansignificantly offset the electroptical curve of the IMod or other MEMdevice.

Color Display Scheme

Because the IMod is a versatile device with a variety of potentialoptical responses, a number of different color display schemes areenabled having different attributes. One potential scheme exploits thefact that there are binary IMod designs that are capable of achievingcolor states, black states, and white states in the same IMod. Thiscapability can be used to achieve a color scheme that can be describedas “base+pigment”. This terminology is used because the approach isanalogous to the way in which paint colors are produced by addingpigments to a white base to achieve a desired color. Using thisapproach, a particular paint can attain any color in the spectrum andany level of saturation by controlling the content and amount ofpigments that are added to the base. The same can be said for a displaythat incorporates colored and black and white pixels.

As shown in FIG. 4A, a pixel 400 comprises five subpixel elements, 402,404, 406, and 408, with each sub pixel capable of reflecting red, green,blue, and white respectively. All of the sub pixels are capable of ablack state. Control over the brightness of each subpixel can beaccomplished using pulse width modulation related techniques asdiscussed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,835,255. In conjunction with properlyselected relative subpixel sizes, this results in a pixel over which avery large degree of control can be exercised of brightness andsaturation. For example, by minimizing the overall brightness of thewhite subpixels, highly saturated colors may be achieved. Conversely, byminimizing the brightness of the color subpixels, or by maximizing themin conjunction with the white subpixels, a bright black and white modemay be achieved. All variations in between are obviously attainable aswell.

User Control of Color Scheme

The previously described color scheme, as well as the inherentattributes of an IMod-based display in terms of resolution, gray scaledepth, and refresh rate, provides flexibility in display performance.Given this range, it is useful to give the user of a product containingsuch a display control over its general characteristics. Alternatively,it may be advantageous for the display to automatically adapt todifferent viewing needs.

For example, a user may want to use a product in black and white modeif, some context, only text were being viewed. In another situation,however, the user may want to view high quality color still images, orin yet another mode may want to view live video. Each of these modes,while potentially within the range of a given IMod displayconfiguration, requires tradeoffs in particular attributes. Tradeoffsinclude the need for low refresh rates if high-resolution imagery isrequired, or the ability to achieve high gray scale depth if only blackand white is requested.

To give the user this kind of on demand flexibility, the controllerhardware may be reconfigurable to some extent. Tradeoffs are aconsequence of the fact that any display has only a certain amount ofbandwidth, which is fundamentally limited by the response time of thepixel elements and thus determines the amount of information which canbe displayed at a given time.

One display architecture that could provide such flexibility isillustrated in FIG. 4B. In this block diagram, controller logic 412 isimplemented using one of a variety of IC technologies, includingprogrammable logic devices (PLAs) and field programmable gate arrays(FPGAs), which allow for the functionality of the component to bealtered or reconfigured after it leaves the factory. Such devices, whichare traditionally used for specialized applications such as digitalsignal processing or image compression, can provide the high performancenecessary for such processing, while supplying flexibility during thedesign stage of products incorporating such devices.

The controller 412 provides signals and data to the driver electronics414 and 416 for addressing the display 418. Conventional controllers arebased on IC's or Application Specific Integrated Circuits (ASICs), whichare effectively “programmed” by virtue of their design duringmanufacture. The term program, in this case, means an internal chiplayout comprising numerous basic and higher level logical components(logic gates and logic modules or assemblies of gates). By using fieldprogrammable devices such PLAs or FPGAs, different displayconfigurations may be loaded into the display controller component inthe form of hardware applications or “hardapps”, from a component 410,which could be memory or a conventional microprocessor and memory. Thememory could be in the form of EEPROMS or other reprogrammable storagedevices, and the microprocessor could take on the form of simplemicrocontroller whose function is to load the hardapp from memory intothe FPGA, unless this were performed by whatever processor is associatedwith the general functioning of the product. This approach isadvantageous because with relatively simple circuitry it is possible toachieve a wide variety of different display performance configurationsand mixed display scan rates, along with the potential to combine them.

One portion of the Screen, for example, might be operated as alow-resolution text entry area, while another provides high qualityrendition of an incoming email. This could be accomplished, within theoverall bandwidth limitations of the display, by varying the refreshrate and # of scans for different segments of the display. Thelow-resolution text area could be scanned rapidly and only once or twicecorresponding to one or two bits of gray scale depth. The high renditionemail area could be scanned rapidly and with three or four passescorresponding to three or four bits of grayscale.

Configurable Electronic Products

This idea may be generalized to include not just the functionality ofthe display controller, but also the functionality of the overallproduct. FIG. 4C shows a configuration of a generic portable electronicproduct 418 that has a programmable logic device or equivalent at itscore 420. In many display centric personal electronic products, such asPDAs (personal digital assistants) and electronic organizers, thecentral processor is a variant of a RISC processor that uses a reducedinstruction set. While RISC processors are more efficient versions ofCPUs that power most personal computers, they are still general-purposeprocessors that expend a lot of energy performing repetitive tasks suchas retrieving instructions from memory.

In personal computers, power consumption is not an issue, and the usertypically wants to run a large number of complicated softwareapplications. The opposite is true of typical display centric/personalelectronic products. They are required to consume low power and offer arelatively small number of relatively simple programs. Such a regimefavors implementing the special purpose programs, which could includeweb browsers, calendar functions, drawing programs, telephone/addressdatabases, and handwriting/speech recognition among others, as hardapps.Thus whenever a particular mode of functionality, e.g., a program, isrequired by the user, the core processor is reconfigured with theappropriate hardapp and the user interacts with the product. Thus thehardapp processor, a variant of a Field Programmable Gate Array has thehardapp (i.e. program) manifested in its internal logic and connections,which get re-arranged and re-wired every time a new hardapp is loaded.Numerous suppliers of these components also provide an applicationdevelopment system that allows a specialized programming language (ahardware description language) to be reduced into the logicalrepresentation that makes up the appropriate processor. Numerous effortsare also underway to simplify the process or reducing higher levelprogramming languages into this form as well. One approach to realizingsuch a processor is detailed in the paper Kouichi Nagami, et al,“Plastic Cell Architecture: Towards Reconfigurable Computing forGeneral-Purpose”, Proc. IEEE Workshop on FPGA-based Custom ComputingMachines, 1998.

Referring again to FIG. 4C, the hardapp processor 420 is shown at thecenter of a collection of I/O devices and peripherals that it willutilize, modify, or ignore based on the nature and function of thehardapp currently loaded. The hardapps can be loaded from memory 422resident in the product, or from an external source via RF or IRinterface, 424, which could pull hardapps from the internet, cellularnetworks, or other electronic devices, along with content for aparticular hardapp application. Other examples of hardapps include voicerecognition or speech synthesis algorithms for the audio interface 432,handwriting recognition algorithms for pen input 426, and imagecompression and processing modes for image input device 430. Such aproduct could perform a myriad of functions by virtue of its majorcomponents, the display as the primary user interface and thereconfigurable core processor. Total power consumption for such a devicecould be on the order of tens of milliwatts versus the several hundredmilliwatts consumed by existing products.

Decoupling Electromechanical Aspects from Optical Aspects

U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/769,947, filed on Dec. 19, 1996, andSer. No. 09/056,975 filed on Apr. 4, 1998, and incorporated byreference, have described IMod designs that propose to decouple theelectromechanical performance of an IMod from its optical performance.Another way in which this may be accomplished is illustrated in FIGS. 5Aand 5B. This design uses electrostatic forces to alter the geometry ofan interferometric cavity. Electrode 502 is fabricated on substrate 500and electrically isolated from membrane/mirror 506 by insulating film504. Electrode 502 functions only as an electrode, not also as a mirror.

An optical cavity 505 is formed between membrane/mirror 506 andsecondary mirror 508. Support for secondary mirror 508 is provided by atransparent superstructure 510, which can be a thick deposited organic,such as SU-8, polyimide, or an inorganic material. With no voltageapplied, the membrane/mirror 506, maintains a certain position shown inFIG. 5A, relative to secondary mirror 508, as determined by thethickness of the sacrificial layers deposited during manufacture. For anactuation voltage of about four volts a thickness of several thousandangstroms might be appropriate. If the secondary mirror is made from asuitable material, say chromium, and the mirror/membrane made from areflective material such as aluminum, then the structure will reflectcertain frequencies of light 511 which may be perceived by viewer 512.In particular, if the chromium is thin enough to be semitransparent,about 40 angstroms, and the aluminum sufficiently thick, at least 500angstroms, as to be opaque, then the structure may have a wide varietyof optical responses. FIGS. 5C and 5D show examples of black and whiteand color responses respectively, all of which are determined by thecavity length, and the thickness of the constituent layers.

FIG. 5B shows the result of a voltage applied between primary electrode502 and membrane mirror 506. The membrane/mirror is vertically displacedthus changing the length of the optical cavity and therefore the opticalproperties of the IMod. FIG. 5C shows one kind of reflective opticalresponse which is possible with the two states, illustrating the blackstate 521 when the device is fully actuated, and a white state 523 whenthe device is not. FIG. 5D shows an optical response with color peaks525, 527, and 529, corresponding to the colors blue, green, and redrespectively. The electromechanical behavior of the device thus may becontrolled independently of the optical performance. Materials andconfiguration of the primary electrode, which influence theelectromechanics, may be selected independently of the materialscomprising the secondary mirror, because they play no role in theoptical performance of the IMod. This design may be fabricated usingprocesses and techniques of surface micromachining, for example, theones described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08,688,710, filed onJul. 31, 1996 and incorporated by reference.

In another example, shown in FIG. 6A, the support structure for the IMod606 is positioned to be hidden by the membrane/mirror 608. In this waythe amount of inactive area is effectively reduced because the viewersees only the area covered by the membrane/mirror and the minimum spacebetween adjoining IMods. This is unlike the structure in FIG. 5A wherethe membrane supports are visible and constitute inactive andinaccurate, from a color standpoint, area. FIG. 6B, reveals the samestructure in the actuated state.

In FIG. 7A, another geometric configuration is illustrated for use in anIMod structure. This design is similar to one shown in U.S. Pat. No.5,638,084. That design relied upon an opaque plastic membrane that isanisotropically stressed so that it naturally resides in a curled state.Application of a voltage flattens the membrane to provide a MEMS-basedlight shutter.

The device's functionality may be improved by making it interferometric.The IMod variation is shown in FIG. 7A where thin film stack 704 is likethe dielectric/conductor/insulator stack which is the basis for theinduced absorber IMod design discussed in U.S. patent application Ser.No. 08/688,710, filed on Jul. 31, 1996 and incorporated by reference.

Application of a voltage between aluminum membrane 702 and stack 704causes the membrane 702 to lie flat against the stack. Duringfabrication, aluminum 702, which could also include other reflectivemetals (silver, copper, nickel), or dielectrics or organic materialswhich have been undercoated with a reflective metal, is deposited on athin sacrificial layer so that it may be released, using wet etch or gasphase release techniques. Aluminum membrane 702 is further mechanicallysecured to the substrate by a support tab 716, which is depositeddirectly on optical stack 704. Because of this, light that is incidenton the area where the tab and the stack overlap is absorbed making thismechanically inactive area optically inactive as well. This techniqueeliminates the need for a separate black mask in this and other IModdesigns.

Incident light 706 is either completely absorbed or a particularfrequency of light 708, is reflected depending on the spacing of thelayers of the stack. The optical behavior is like that of the inducedabsorber IMod described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/688,710,filed on Jul. 31, 1996, and incorporated by reference.

FIG. 7B shows the device configuration when no voltage is applied. Theresidual stresses in the membrane induce it to curl up into a tightlywound coil. The residual stresses can be imparted by deposition of athin layer of material 718 on top of the membrane, which has extremelyhigh residual tensile stress. Chromium is one example in which highstresses may be achieved with a film thickness a low as several hundredangstroms. With the membrane no longer obstructing its path, light beam706 is allowed to pass through the stack 704 and intersect with plate710. Plate 710 can reside in a state of being either highly absorbing orhighly reflective (of a particular color or white). For the modulator tobe used in a reflective display, the optical stack 704 would be designedsuch that when the device is actuated it would either reflect aparticular color (if plate 710 were absorbing) or be absorbing (ifplate, 710 were reflective).

Rotational Actuation

As shown in FIG. 8A, another IMod geometry relies on rotationalactuation. Using the processes discussed in U.S. patent application Ser.No. 08/688,710, filed on Jul. 31, 1996 and incorporated by reference,electrode 802, an aluminum film about 1000 angstroms thick, isfabricated on substrate 800. Support post 808 and rotational hinge 810,support shutter 812, upon which a set of reflecting films 813 has beendeposited. The support shutter may be an aluminum film which is severalthousand angstroms thick. Its X-Y dimensions could be on the order oftens to several hundred microns. The films may be interferometric anddesigned to reflect particular colors. A fixed interferometric stack inthe form of an induced absorber like that described in U.S. patentapplication Ser. No. 08/688,710, filed on Jul. 31, 1996 and incorporatedby reference would suffice. They may also comprise polymers infused withcolor pigments, or they may be aluminum or silver to provide broadbandreflection. The electrode 802 and the shutter 812 are designed such thatthe application of a voltage (e.g., 10 volts) between the two causes theshutter 812 to experience partial or full rotation about the axis of thehinge. Only shutter 818 is shown in a rotated state although typicallyall of the shutters for a given pixel would be driven in unison by asignal on the common bus electrode 804. Such a shutter would experiencea form of electromechanical hysteresis if the hinges and electrodedistances were designed such that the electrostatic attraction of theelectrodes overcomes the spring tension of the hinge at some pointduring the rotation. The shutters would thus have twoelectromechanically stable states.

In a transmissive mode of operation, the shutter would either blockincident light or allow it to pass through. FIG. 8A illustrates thereflective mode where incident light 822 is reflected back to the viewer820. In this mode, and in one state, the shutter either reflects a whitelight, if the shutter is metallized, or reflects a particular color orset of colors, if it is coated with interferometric films or pigments.Representative thicknesses and resulting colors, for an interferometricstack, are also described in U.S. patent application Ser. No.08/688,710, filed on Jul. 31, 1996 and incorporated by reference. In theother state, the light is allowed to pass through and be absorbed insubstrate 800 if the opposite side of the shutter were coated with anabsorbing film or films 722. These films could comprise another pigmentinfused organic film, or an induced absorber stack designed to beabsorbing. Conversely, the shutters may be highly absorbing, i.e.,black, and the opposite side of substrate 800 coated with highlyreflective films 824, or be selectively coated with pigment orinterferometric films to reflect colors, along the lines of the colorreflecting films described above.

Operation of the device may be further enhanced by the addition ofsupplementary electrode 814, which provides additional torque to theshutter when charged to a potential that induces electrostaticattraction between supplementary electrode 814 and shutter 812.Supplementary electrode 814 comprises a combination of a conductor 814and support structure 816. The electrode may comprise a transparentconductor such as ITO that could be about thousand angstroms thick. Allof the structures and associated electrodes are machined from materialsthat are deposited on the surface of a single substrate, i.e.monolithically, and therefore are easily fabricated and reliablyactuated due to good control over electrode gap spaces. For example, ifsuch an electrode were mounted on an opposing substrate, variations inthe surface of both the device substrate and opposing substrate couldcombine to produce deviations as much as several microns or more. Thusthe voltage required to affect a particular change in behavior couldvary by as much as several tens of volts or more. Structures that aremonolithic follow substrate surface variations exactly and suffer littlesuch variation.

FIG. 8B, steps 1-7, shows a fabrication sequence for the rotationalmodulator. In step 1, substrate 830 has been coated with electrode 832and insulator 834. Typical electrode and insulator materials arealuminum and silicon dioxide, each of a thickness of one thousandangstroms each. These are patterned in step 2. Sacrificial spacer 836, amaterial such as silicon several microns in thickness, has beendeposited and patterned in step 3 and coated with post/hinge/shuttermaterial 838 in step 4. This could be an aluminum alloy ortitanium/tungsten alloy about 1000 angstroms thick. In step 5, material838 has been patterned to form bus electrode 844, support post 840, andshutter 842. Shutter reflector 846 has been deposited and patterned instep 6. In step 7, the sacrificial spacer has been etched away yieldingthe completed structure. Step 7 also reveals a top view of the structureshowing detail of the hinge comprising support posts 848, torsion arm850, and shutter 852.

Switching Elements

For IMods that are binary devices only a small number of voltage levelsis required to address a display. The driver electronics need notgenerate analog signals that would be required to achieve gray scaleoperation.

Thus, the electronics may be implemented using other means as suggestedin U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/769,947, filed on Dec. 19, 1996and incorporated by reference. In particular the drive electronics andlogic functions can be implemented using switch elements based on MEMS.

FIGS. 9A through 9E illustrate the concept. FIG. 9A is a diagram of abasic switch building block with an input 900 making a connection tooutput 904 by application of a control signal 902. FIG. 9B illustrateshow a row driver could be implemented. The row driver for the addressingscheme described above requires the output of three voltage levels.Application of the appropriate control signals to the row driver allowsone of the input voltage levels to be selected for output 903. The inputvoltages are Vcol1, Vcol0, and Vbias corresponding to 906, 908, and 910in the figure. Similarly, for the column driver shown in FIG. 9C, theappropriate control signals result in the selection of one or the otherinput voltage levels for delivery to the output 920. The input voltagesare Vsel F1, Vsel F0, and ground, corresponding to 914, 916, and 918 inthe figure. FIG. 9D illustrates how a logic device 932, may beimplemented, in this case a NAND gate, using basic switch buildingblocks 934, 936, 938, and 940. All of these components can be configuredand combined in a way that allows for the fabrication of the displaysubsystem shown in FIG. 9E. The subsystem comprises controller logic926, row driver 924, column driver 928, and display array 930, and usesthe addressing scheme described above in FIG. 3.

Fabrication of the switch elements as MEMS devices makes it possible tofabricate an entire display system using a single process. The switchfabrication process becomes a subprocess of the IMod fabrication processand is illustrated in FIGS. 10A-10H.

Referring to FIGS. 10A and 10B, the initial stage of the IModsfabrication process is shown, FIG. 10A. Arrow 1004 indicates thedirection of the perspective of the side view. Substrate 1000 has hadsacrificial spacer 1002 a silicon layer 2000 angstroms thick depositedand patterned on its surface.

Referring to FIGS. 10C and 10D, the second stage of the IModsfabrication process is shown. A structural material, an aluminum alloyseveral microns thick, has been deposited and patterned to form sourcebeam 1010, drain structure 1008, and gate structure 1006. Severalhundred angstroms of a non-corroding metal such as gold, iridium orplatinum may be plated onto the structural material at this point tomaintain low contact resistance through the life of the switch. Notch1012 has been etched in source beam 1010 to facilitate the movement ofthe beam in a plane parallel to that of the substrate.

Referrring to FIGS. 10E-10H, arrows 1016 indicate the direction of theperspective of the front view. Referring to FIGS. 10E and 10F, in thefinal stage of the IMod manufacturing process, the sacrificial materialhas been etched away leaving the source beam 1010 intact and free tomove.

Referring to FIGS. 10G and 10H, when a voltage is applied between thesource beam and the gate structure, the source beam 1010 is deflectedtowards gate 1006 until it comes into contact with the drain 1008,thereby establishing electrical contact between the source and thedrain. The mode of actuation is parallel to the surface of thesubstrate, thus permitting a fabrication process that is compatible withthe main IMod fabrication processes. This process also requires fewersteps than those used to fabricate switches that actuate in a directionnormal the substrate surface.

FIG. 10I and 10J illustrates two alternative designs for planar MEMswitches. The switch in FIG. 10I differs in that switch beam 1028 servesto provide contact between drain 1024 and source 1026. In the switch ofFIG. 10H, currents that must pass through the source beam to the drainmay effect switching thresholds, complicating the design of circuits.This is not the case with switch 1020. The switch in FIG. 10J reveals afurther enhancement. In this case, insulator 1040 electrically isolatesswitch beam 1042 from contact beam 1038. This insulator may be ainaterial such as SiO2 that can be deposited and patterned usingconventional techniques. Use of such a switch eliminates the need toelectrically isolate switch drive voltages from logic signals incircuits comprising these switches.

Multidimensional Photonic Structures

In general, IMods feature elements that have useful optical propertiesand are movable by actuation means with respect to themselves or otherelectrical, mechanical or optical elements.

Assemblies of thin films to produce interferometric stacks are a subsetof a larger class of structures that we shall refer to asmultidimensional photonic structures. Broadly, we define a photonicstructure as one that has the ability to modify the propagation ofelectromagnetic waves due to the geometry and associated changes in therefractive index of the structure. Such structures have a dimensionalaspect because they interact with light primarily along one or moreaxes. Structures that are multidimensional have also been referred to asphotonic bandgap structures (PBG's) or photonic crystals. The text“Photonic Crystals” by John D. Joannopoulos, et al describes photonicstructures that are periodic.

A one-dimensional PBG can occur in the form of a thin film stack. By wayof example, FIG. 16 shows the fabrication and end product of an IMod inthe form of a dielectric Fabry-Perot filter. Thin film stacks 1614 and1618, which could be alternating layers of silicon and silicon dioxideeach a quarter wave thick, have been fabricated on a substrate to forman IMod structure that incorporates central cavity 1616. In general, thestack is continuous in the X and Y direction, but has a periodicity inthe optical sense in the Z direction due to variations in the refractiveindex of the material as they are comprised of alternating layers withhigh and low indices. This structure can be considered one-dimensionalbecause the effect of the periodicity is maximized for waves propagatingalong one axis, in this case the Z-axis.

FIGS. 11A and 11B illustrate two manifestations of a two-dimensionalphotonic structure. In FIG. 11A, a microring resonator 1102 can befabricated from one of a large number of well known materials, an alloyof tantalum pentoxide and silicon dioxide for example, using well knowntechniques. For a device optimized for wavelengths in the 1.55 μm range,typical dimensions are w=1.5 μm, h=1.0 μm, and r=10 μm.

Fabricated on a substrate 1100 (glass is one possibility though thereare many others), the structure is essentially a circular waveguidewhose refractive index and dimensions w, r, and h determine thefrequencies and modes of light which will propagate within it. Such aresonator, if designed correctly, can act as a frequency selectivefilter for broadband radiation that is coupled into it. In this case,the radiation is generally propagating in the XY plane as indicated byorientation symbol 1101. The one-dimensional analog of this device wouldbe a Fabry-Perot filter made using single layer mirrors. Neither deviceexhibits a high order optical periodicity, due to the single layer“boundaries” (i.e. mirrors); however, they can be considered photonicstructures in the broad sense.

A more traditional PBG is shown in FIG. 11B. Columnar array 1106presents a periodic variation in refractive index in both the X and Ydirections. Electromagnetic radiation propagating through this medium ismost significantly affected if it is propagating within the XY plane,indicated by orientation symbol 1103.

Because of its periodic nature, the array of FIG. 11B shares attributeswith a one-dimensional thin film stack, except for its higher-orderdimensionality. The array is periodic in the sense that along some axisthrough the array, within the XY plane; the index of refraction variesbetween that of the column material, and that of the surroundingmaterial, which is usually air. Appropriate design of this array,utilizing variations on the same principles applied to the design ofthin film stacks, allows for the fabrication of a wide variety ofoptical responses, (mirrors, bandpass filters, edge filters, etc.)acting on radiation traveling in the XY plane. Array 1106 in the caseshown in FIG. 11B includes a singularity or defect 1108 in the form of acolumn that differs in its dimension and/or refractive index. Forexample, the diameter of this column might be fractionally larger orsmaller than the remaining columns (which could be on the order of aquarter wavelength in diameter), or it may be of a different material(perhaps air vs. silicon dioxide). The overall size of the array isdetermined by the size of the optical system or component that needs tobe manipulated. The defect may also occur in the form of the absence ofa column or columns (a row), depending on the desired behavior. Thisstructure is analogous to the dielectric Fabry-Perot filter of FIG. 16,but it functions in only two dimensions. In this case, the defect isanalogous to the cavity, 1616. The remaining columns are analogous tothe adjacent two-dimensional stacks.

The relevant dimensions of the structure of FIG. 11B are denoted bycolumn x spacing sx, column y spacing sy, (either of which could beconsidered the lattice constant), column diameter d, and array height,h. Like the quarter wave stack, the one-dimensional equivalent, columndiameters and spacings can be on the order of a quarter wave. Theheight, h, is determined by the desired propagation modes, with littlemore than one half wavelength used for single mode propagation. Theequations for relating the size of the structures to their effect onlight are well known and documented in the text “Photonic Crystals” byJohn D. Joannopoulos, et al.

This kind of structure may also be fabricated using the same materialsand techniques used to fabricate the resonator 1102. For example, asingle film of silicon may be deposited on a glass substrate andpatterned, using conventional techniques, and etched using reactive ionetching to produce the high aspect ratio columns. For a wavelength of1.55 μm, the diameter and spacing of the columns could be on the orderof 0.5 μm and 0.1 μm respectively.

Photonic structures also make it possible to direct radiation underrestrictive geometric constraints. Thus they are quite useful inapplications where it is desirable to redirect and/or select certainfrequencies or bands of frequencies of light when dimensionalconstraints are very tight. Waveguides, channeling light propagating inthe XY plane, may be fabricated which can force light to make 90 degreeturns in a space less than the wavelength of the light. This can beaccomplished, for example, by creating the column defect in the form ofa linear row, which can act as the waveguide.

A three-dimensional structure is illustrated in FIG. 12.Three-dimensional periodic structure 1202 acts on radiation propagatingin the XY, YZ, and XZ planes. A variety of optical responses maybeattained by appropriate design of the structure and selection of itsconstituent materials. The same design rules apply, however they areapplied three-dimensionally here. Defects occur in the form of points,lines, or regions, vs. points and lines, which differ in size and/orrefractive index from the surrounding medium. In FIG. 12, the defect1204 is a single point element but may also be linear or a combinationof linear and point elements or regions. For example, a “linear” or“serpentine” array of point defects may be fabricated such that itfollows an arbitrary three-dimensional path through the PBG, and acts asa tightly constrained waveguide for light propagating within it. Thedefect would generally be located internally but is shown on the surfacefor purposes of illustration. The relevant dimensions of this structureare all illustrated in the figure. The diameter and spacing andmaterials of the PBG are completely application dependent, however theaforementioned design rules and equations also apply.

Three-dimensional PBGs are more complicated to make. Conventional meansfor fabricating one-dimensional or two-dimensional features, if appliedin three dimensions, would involve multiple applications of deposition,pattern, and etch cycles to achieve the third dimension in thestructure. Fabrication techniques for building periodicthree-dimensional structures include: holographic, where aphotosensitive material is exposed to a standing wave and replicates thewave in the form of index variations in the material itself;self-organizing organic or self-assembling materials that rely on innateadhesion and orientation properties of certain co-polymeric materials tocreate arrays of columnar or spherical structures during the depositionof the material; ceramic approaches that can involve the incorporationof a supply of spherical structures of controlled dimensions into aliquid suspension that, once solidified, organizes the structures, andcan be removed by dissolution or high temperature; combinations of theseapproaches; and others.

Co-polymeric self-assembly techniques are especially interesting becausethey are both low temperature and require minimal or nophotolithography. In general, this technique involves the dissolution ofa polymer, polyphenylquinoine-block-polystyrene (PPQmPSn) is oneexample, into a solvent such as carbon disulfide. After spreading thesolution onto a substrate and allowing the solvent to evaporate, a closepacked hexagonal arrangement of air filled polymeric spheres results.The process can be repeated multiple times to produce multi-layers, theperiod of the array may be controlled by manipulating the number ofrepeat units of the components (m and n) of the polymer. Introduction ofa nanometer sized colloid comprising metals, oxides, or semiconductorsthat can have the effect of reducing the period of the array further, aswell as increasing the refractive index of the polymer.

Defects may be introduced via direct manipulation of the material on asubmicron scale using such tools as focused ion beams or atomic forcemicroscopes. The former may be used to remove or add material in verysmall selected areas or to alter the optical properties of the material.Material removal occurs when the energetic particle beam, such as thatused by a Focused Ion Beam tool, sputters away material in its path.Material addition occurs when the focused ion beam is passed through avolatile metal containing gas such as tungsten hexafluoride (fortungsten conductor) or silicon tetrafluoride (for insulating silicondioxide). The gas breaks down, and the constituents are deposited wherethe beam contacts the substrate. Atomic force microscopy may be used tomove materials around on the molecular scale.

Another approach involves the use of a technique that can be calledmicro-electrodeposition and which is described in detail in U.S. Pat.No. 5,641,391. In this approach a single microscopic electrode can beused to define three-dimensional features of submicron resolution usinga variety of materials and substrates. Metal “defects” deposited in thisway could be subsequently oxidized to form an dielectric defect aroundwhich the PBG array could be fabricated using the techniques describedabove.

The existence of surface features, in the form of patterns of othermaterials, on the substrate upon which the PBG is fabricated may alsoserve as a template for the generation of defects within the PBG duringits formation. This is particularly relevant to PBG processes that aresensitive to substrate conditions, primarily self-assembly approaches.These features may encourage or inhibit the “growth” of the PBG in ahighly localized region around the seed depending on the specific natureof the process. In this way, a pattern of defect “seeds” may be producedand the PBG formed afterwards with the defects created within during thePBG formation process.

Thus, the class of devices known as IMods may be further broadened byincorporating the larger family of multidimensional photonic structuresinto the modulator itself. Any kind of photonic structure, which isinherently a static device, may now be made dynamic by altering itsgeometry and/or altering its proximity to other structures. Similarly,the micromechanical Fabry-Perot filter (shown in FIG. 16), comprisingtwo mirrors which are each one-dimensional photonic structures, may betuned by altering the cavity width electrostatically.

FIG. 13 shows two examples of IMod designs incorporating two-dimensionalPBGs. In FIG. 13A, a cutaway diagram reveals a self-supporting membrane1304, which has been fabricated with a microring resonator 1306 mountedon the side facing the substrate. Waveguides 1301 and 1302 lying withinthe bulk of the substrate 1303 are planar and parallel and can befabricated using known techniques. In FIG. 13A, the IMod is shown in theun-driven state with a finite airgap (number) between the microring andthe substrate. The microring is fabricated so that its position overlapsand aligns with the paired waveguides in the substrate below. Dimensionsof the microring are identical to the example described above.Crossection 1305 shows the dimensions of the waveguides which could bew=1 μm, h=0.5 μm, and t=100 nm. In the un-driven state, light 1308,propagates undisturbed in waveguide 1302, and the output beam 1310 isspectrally identical to the input 1308.

Driving the IMod to force the microring into intimate contact with thesubstrate and waveguides alters the optical behavior of the device.Light propagating in waveguide 1302 may now couple into the microring bythe phenomenon of evanescence. The microring, if sized appropriately,acts as an optical resonator coupling a selected frequency fromwaveguide 1302 and injecting it into waveguide 1301. This is shown inFIG. 13B where light beam 1312 is shown propagating in a directionopposite the direction of light 1308. Such a device may be used as afrequency selective switch that picks particular wavelengths out of awaveguide by the application of a voltage or other driving meansrequired to bring the structure into intimate contact with theunderlying waveguides. A static version of this geometry is described inthe paper B. E. Little, et al, “Vertically Coupled Microring ResonatorChannel Dropping Filter”, IEEE Photonics Technology Letters, vol. 11,no. 2, 1999.

Another example is illustrated in FIG. 13C. In this case, a pair ofwaveguides 1332 and 1330 and resonator 1314 are fabricated on thesubstrate in the form of a columnar PBG. The PBG is a uniform array ofcolumns, with the waveguides defined by removing two rows (one for eachwaveguide), and the resonator defined by removing two columns. Top view1333 provides more detail of the construction of waveguides 1330 and1332, and the resonator 1314. Dimensions are dependent on the wavelengthof interest as well as materials used. For a wavelength of 1.55 μm, thediameter and spacing of the columns could be on the order of 0.5 μm and1 μm respectively. The height, h, determines the propagation modes whichwill be supported and should be slightly more than half the wavelengthif only single modes are to be propagated.

On the inner surface of the membrane 1315 are fabricated two isolatedcolumns 1311, which are directed downwards, and have the same dimensionsand are of the same material (or optically equivalent) as the columns onthe substrate. The resonator and columns are designed to complement eachother; there is a corresponding absence of a column in the resonatorwhere the column on the membrane is positioned.

When the IMod is in an undriven state, there is a finite vertical airgap1312, of at least several hundred nanometers between the PBG and themembrane columns and therefore no optical interaction occurs. Theabsence of columns in the resonator act like defects, causing couplingbetween waveguides 1330 and 1332. In this state the device acts as doesthe one shown in FIG. 13B and selected frequencies of light propagatingalong waveguide are now injected into waveguide 1332, and propagate inthe opposite direction in the form of light 1329.

Driving the IMod into contact with the PBG, however, places the columnsinto the resonator altering its behavior. The defects of the resonatorare eliminated by the placement of the membrane columns. The device inthis state acts as does the one shown in FIG. 13A, with light 1328propagating without interference.

A static version of this geometry is described in the paper H. A. Haus“Channel drop filters in photonic crystals”, Optics Express, vol. 3, no.1, 1998.

Optical Switches

In FIG. 14A, a device based on the induced absorber includes aself-supporting aluminum membrane 1400, on the order of tens to hundredsof microns square, which is suspended over a stack of materials 1402comprising a combination of metals and oxides and patterned ontransparent substrate. The films utilized in the induced absorbermodulator, described in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 08/688,710,filed on Jul. 31, 1996, and incorporated by reference, could serve thispurpose. The films on the substrate may also comprise a transparentconductor, such as ITG. The structure may incorporate on its underside alossy metal film such as molybdenum or tungsten, of several hundredangstroms in thickness.

The materials are configured so that in the undriven state the devicereflects in a particular wavelength region, but becomes very absorbingwhen the membrane is driven into contact. Side view 1410 shows a view ofthe device looking into the side of the substrate. Light beam 1408propagates at some arbitrary angle through the substrate and is incidenton IMod 1406, shown in the un-driven state. Assuming the frequency ofthe light corresponds with the reflective region of the IMod in theun-driven state, the light is reflected at a complementary angle andpropagates away. Side view, 1414, shows the same IMod in the drivenstate. Because the device is now very absorbing, the light which isincident upon it is no longer reflected but absorbed by the materials inthe IMod's stack.

Thus, in this configuration, the IMod may act as an optical switch forlight that is propagating within the substrate upon which it isfabricated. The substrate is machined to form surfaces that are highlypolished, highly parallel (to within 1/10 of a wavelength of the lightof interest), and many times thicker (at least hundreds of microns) thanthe wavelenght of light. This allows the substrate to act as asubstrate/waveguide in that light beams propagate in a direction whichis, on average, parallel to the substrate but undergo multipleireflections from one surface to another. Light waves in such astructure are often referred to a substrate guided waves.

FIG. 14B shows a variation on this theme. Membrane 1420 is patternedsuch that it is no longer rectangular but is tapered towards one end.While the mechanical spring constant of the structure remains constantalong this length, electrode area decreases. Thus the amount of forcewhich can be applied electrostatically is lower at the narrower end ofthe taper. If a gradually increasing voltage is applied, the membranewill begin to actuate at the wider end first and actuation will progressalong arrow 1428 as the voltage increases.

To incident light, the IMod operates as an absorbing region whose areadepends on the value of the applied voltage. Side view 1434 shows theeffect on a substrate propagating beam when no voltage is applied. Thecorresponding reflective area 1429, which shows the IMod from theperspective of the incident beam, shows “footprint” 1431 of the beamsuperimposed on the reflective area. Since the entire area 1429 isnon-absorbing, beam, 1430, is reflected from IMod 1428 (with minimallosses) in the form of beam 1432.

In side view 1436, an interim voltage value is applied and the reflectedbeam 1440 has been attenuated to some extent because the reflectivearea, shown in 1437 is now partially absorbing. Views 1438 and 1429reveal the result of full actuation and the complete attenuation of thebeam.

Thus, by using a tapered geometry a variable optical attenuator may becreated, the response of which is directly related to the value of theapplied voltage.

Another kind of optical switch is illustrated in FIG. 15A. Support frame1500 is fabricated from a metal, such as aluminum several thousandangstroms in thickness, in such a way that it is electrically connectedto mirror 1502. Mirror 1502 resides on transparent optical standoff1501, which is bonded to support 1500. Mirror 1502 may comprise a singlemetal film or combinations of metals, oxides, and semiconducting films.

The standoff is fabricated from a material that has the same or higherindex of refraction than that of the substrate. This could be SiO2 (sameindex) or a polymer whose index can be varied. The standoff is machinedso that the mirror is supported at an angle of 45 degrees. Machining ofthe standoff can be accomplished using a technique known as analoglithography that relies on a photomask whose features are continuouslyvariable in terms of their optical density. By appropriate variation ofthis density on a particular feature, three-dimensional shapes can beformed in photoresist that is exposed using this mask. The shape canthen be transferred into other materials via reactive ion etching. Theentire assembly is suspended over conductor, 1503, which has beenpatterned to provide an unobstructed “window” 1505 into the underlyingsubstrate, 1504. That is to say the bulk of conductor 1503 has beenetched away so that window 1505, comprising bare glass, is exposed. Theswitch, like other IMods, can be actuated to drive the whole assemblyinto contact with the substrate/waveguide. Side view, 1512, shows theoptical behavior. Beam 1510 is propagating within the substrate at anangle 45 degrees from normal that prevents it from propagating beyondthe boundaries of the substrate. This is because 45 degrees is above theangle known as the critical angle, which allows the beam to be reflectedwith minimal or no losses at the interface 1519 between the substrateand the outside medium by the principle of total internal reflection(TIR).

The principle of TIR depends on Snell's law, but a basic requirement isthat the medium outside the substrate have an index of refraction thatis lower than that of the substrate. In side view, 1512, the device isshown with the switch 1506 in the un-driven state, and beam 1510propagating in an unimpeded fashion. When switch 1506 is actuated intocontact with the substrate as shown in side view 1514, the beam's pathis altered. Because the standoff has a refractive index greater than orequal to that of the substrate, the beam no longer undergoes TIR at theinterface. The beam propagates out of the substrate into the opticalstandoff, where it is reflected by the mirror. The mirror is angled, at45 degrees, such that the reflected beam is now traveling at an anglewhich is normal to the plane of the substrate. The result is that thelight may propagate through the substrate interface because it no longermeets the criteria for TIR, and can be captured by a fiber coupler 1520,which has been mounted on the opposite side of the substrate/waveguide.A similar concept is described in the paper, X. Zhou, et al, “WaveguidePanel Display Using Electromechanical Spatial Modulators”, SID Digest,vol. XXIX, 1998. This particular device was designed for emissivedisplay applications. The mirror may also be implemented in the form ofa reflecting grating, which may be etched into the surface of thestandoff using conventional patterning techniques. This approach,however, exhibits wavelength dependence and losses due to multiplediffraction orders that are not an issue with thin film mirrors.Additionally, alternative optical structures may be substituted for themirror as well with their respective attributes and shortcomings. Thesecan be categorized as refractive, reflective, and diffractive and caninclude micro-lenses (both transmissive and reflective), concave orconvex mirrors, diffractive optical elements, holographic opticalelements, prisms, and any other form of optical element which can becreated using micro-fabrication techniques. In the case where analternative optical element is used, the standoff and the angle itimparts to the optic may not be necessary depending on the nature of themicro-optic.

This variation on the IMod acts as a de-coupling switch for light.Broadband radiation, or specific frequencies if the mirror is designedcorrectly, can be coupled out of the substrate/waveguide at will. Sideview 1526 shows a more elaborate implementation in which an additionalfixed mirror, angled at 45 degrees, has been fabricated on the side ofthe substrate opposite that of the de-coupling switch. This mirrordiffers from the switch in that it cannot be actuated. By carefulselection of the angles of the mirrors on both structures, light 1522that has been effectively decoupled out of the substrate by switch 1506may be re-coupled back into the substrate by re-coupling mirror 1528.However, by fabricating the re-coupling mirror with differentorientations in the XY plane, the mirror combination may be used toredirect light in any new direction within the substrate/waveguide. Thecombination of these two structures will be referred to as a directionalswitch. Re-coupling mirrors can also be used to couple any light that ispropagating into the substrate in a direction normal to the surface.

FIG. 15H shows one implementation of an array of directional switches.Looking down onto the substrate 1535, linear array 1536 is an array offiber couplers which directs light into the substrate at an angle normalto the XY plane. An array of re-coupling mirrors (not visible) ispositioned directly opposite the fiber coupler array to couple lightinto the substrate parallel to beam 1530. On the surfaces of thesubstrate, 1535, are fabricated an array of directional switches ofwhich 1531 is one. The switches are positioned in a way such that lightcoupled into the substrate from anyone of the input fiber couplers 1536may be directed to anyone of the output fiber couplers 1532. In this waythe device may act as an N×N optical switch that can switch anyone ofany number of different inputs to any one of any number of differentoutputs.

Tunable Filter

Returning to FIG. 16, an IMod in the form of a tunable Fabry-Perotfilter is shown. In this case, conducting contact pad 1602 has beendeposited and patterned along with dielectric mirrors 1604 and 1608 andsacrificial layer 1606. This may consist of a silicon film with athickness of some multiple of one-half a wavelength. The mirrors maycomprise stacks of materials, TiO2 (high index) and SiO2 (low index)being two examples, with alternating high and low indices, and one ofthe layers may also be air. Insulating layer 1610 is deposited andpatterned such that second contact pad 1612 only contacts mirror 1608.Mirror, 1608 is subsequently patterned leaving a mirror “island” 1614connected by supports 1615. The lateral dimensions of the island areprimarily determined by the size of light beam with which it willinteract. This is usually on the order of tens to several hundredmicrons. Sacrificial layer 1606 is partially etched chemically, butleaving standoffs of sufficient size to provide mechanical stability,probably on the order of tens of microns square. If the top layer ofmirror 1608 and the bottom layer of mirror 1604 are lightly doped to beconducting, then application of a voltage between contact pads 1602 and1612 will cause the mirror island to be displaced. Thus, the structure'soptical response may be tuned.

FIG. 17A shows an application of this tunable filter. On the top surfaceof substrate 1714 has been fabricated tunable filter 1704, mirrors 1716,and anti-reflection coating 1712. A mirror 1717 has also been fabricatedon the bottom surface of the substrate, e.g., from a metal such as goldof at least 100 nm thick. Mounted on the top surface of the substrate isan optical superstructure, 1706, whose inner surface is at least 95%reflective, e.g., by the addition of a reflecting gold film, and whichalso supports an angled mirror, 1710. In this device, light beam 1702propagates within the substrate at some angle that is larger than thecritical angle, which is approximately 41 degrees for a substrate ofglass and a medium of air. Therefore the mirrors 1716 are required tokeep it bounded within the confines of the substrate/waveguide. Thisconfiguration allows greater flexibility in the selection of angles atwhich the light propagates.

Beam 1702 is incident upon Fabry-Perot 1704, which transmits aparticular frequency of light 1708 while reflecting the rest 1709. Thetransmitted frequency is incident onto and reflected from the reflectivesuperstructure 1706, and is reflected again by mirror 1716 onto angledmirror 1710. Mirror 1710 is tilted such that the light is directedtowards antireflection coating 1712 at a normal angle with respect tothe substrate, and passes through and into the external medium. Thedevice as a whole thus acts as a wavelength selective filter.

The superstructure may be fabricated using a number of techniques. Onewould include the bulk micromachining of a slab of silicon to form acavity of precise depth, e.g., on the order of the thickness of thesubstrate and at least several hundred microns. The angled mirror isfabricated after cavity etch, and the entire assembly is bonded to thesubstrate, glass for example, using any one of many silicon/glassbonding techniques.

FIG. 17B is a more elaborate version. In this example, a second tunablefilter 1739 has been added to provide an additional frequency selectionchannel. That is to say that two separate frequencies may now beselected independently. Detectors 1738 have also been added to allow fora higher degree of integrated functionality.

FIG. 17C incorporates integrated circuits. Light beam 1750 has beencoupled into substrate 1770 and is incident upon tunable filter 1752.This filter is different than those of FIGS. 17A and 17B in that itincludes recoupling mirror 1756 that has been fabricated on the surfaceof the movable mirror of the filter. The angle of the mirror is suchthat the frequency selected by filter 1752 is now coupled directly backinto the substrate at a normal angle in the form of light beam 1758. Theremaining frequencies contained in light beam 1750 propagate until theyencounter recoupling mirror 1760 which is angled so that it presents asurface which is perpendicular to propagating beam 1756. The beam thusretraces its path back out of the device where it may be used by otherdevices that are connected optically. Light beam 1758 is incident on IC1764 that can detect and decode the information within this beam. ThisIC may be in the form of an FPGA or other silicon, silicon/germanium, orgallium aresenide device based integrated circuit that could benefitfrom being directly coupled to information carrying light. For example,a high bandwidth optical interconnect may be formed between ICs 1764 and1762 by virtue of the bi-directional light path 1772. This is formed bya combination of mirrors 1766 and recoupling mirrors 1768. Light can beemmitted by either ICs if they incorporate components such as verticalcavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELS) or light emitting diodes LEDs.Light can be detected by any number of optically sensitive components,with the nature of the component depending on the semiconductortechnology used to fabricate the IC. Light that is incident on the ICmay also be modulated by IMods that have been fabricated on the surfaceof the IC that is exposed to the substrate propagating light.

Optical Mixer Using Substrate Waveguide

FIGS. 18A and 18B are an illustration of a two-channel optical mixerimplemented using a TIR version of a substrate/waveguide. FIG. 18A showsa schematic of the device. Light containing multiple wavelengths has twoparticular wavelengths, 1801 and 1803, split off and directed towardstwo independent variable attentuators 1805. They are then output toseveral possible channels 1807 or into an optical stop 1813.

FIG. 18B reveals an implementation. The input light is directed into thedevice through fiber coupler 1800, through anti-reflection coating 1802,and coupled into the substrate using re-coupling mirror 1806. Therecoupling mirror directs the light onto tunable filter 1808, splittingoff frequency A1 (beam 1815) and all non-selected frequencies aredirected toward a second tunable filter 1809, which splits off frequencyA2 (beam 1817), with the remaining frequencies, beam 1819, propagatingfurther downstream via TIR. Following the path of beam 1815, which wastransmitted by tunable filter 1808, the light is redirected back intothe substrate waveguide via mirror 1810, through an AR coating, andre-coupled back into the substrate. The re-coupling mirror 1811 directsbeam 1815 towards attenuator 1812 where it continues along a parallelpath with beam 1817 selected by the second tunable filter 1809. Thesetwo beams are positionally shifted by virtue of beam repositioner 1816.

This structure produces the same result as a recoupling mirror, exceptthat the mirror is parallel to the surface of the substrate. Because themirror is suspended a fixed distance beyond the substrate surface, theposition of the point of incidence on the opposite substrate interfaceis shifted towards the right. This shift is directly determined by theheight of the repositioner. The beam 1819, containing the unselectedwavelengths, is also shifted by virtue of repositioner 1818. The resultis that all three beams are equally separated when they are incident onan array of decoupling switches 1820 and 1824. These serve selectivelyto redirect the beams into one of two optical combiners, 1828 being oneof them or into detector/absorber 1830. The optical combiners may befabricated using a variety of techniques. A polymeric film patternedinto the form of a pillar with its top formed into a lens using reactiveion etching is one approach. The absorber/detector, comprising asemiconductor device that has been bonded to the substrate, serves toallow the measurement of the output power of the mixer. Opticalsuperstructures 1829 support external optical components and provide ahermetic package for the mixer.

The combination of planar IMods and a substrate waveguide provide afamily of optical devices that are easily fabricated, configured, andcoupled to the outside world because the devices reside on the waveguideand/or on the superstructure and are capable of operating on light whichis propagating within the waveguide, and between the waveguide and thesuperstructure. Because all of the components are fabricated in a planarfashion, economies of scale can be achieved by bulk fabrication overlarge areas, and the different pieces maybe aligned and bonded easilyand precisely. In addition, because all of the active components exhibitactuation in a direction normal to the substrate, they are relativelysimple to fabricate and drive, compared to more elaborate non-planarmirrors and beams. Active electronic components may be bonded to eitherthe superstructure or the substrate/waveguide to increase functionality.Alternatively, active devices may be fabricated as a part of thesuperstructure, particularly if it is a semiconductor such as silicon orgallium arsenide.

Printing Style Fabrication Processes

Because they are planar and because many of the layers do not requiresemiconducting electrical characteristics that require specializedsubstrates, IMods, as well as many other MEM structures, may takeadvantage of manufacturing techniques which are akin to those of theprinting industry. These kinds of processes typically involve a“substrate” which is flexible and in the form of a continuous sheet ofsay paper or plastic. Referred to as web fed processes, they usuallyinvolve a continuous roll of the substrate material which is fed into aseries of tools, each of which selectively coats the substrate with inkin order to sequentially build up a full color graphical image. Suchprocesses are of interest due to the high speeds with which product canbe produced.

FIG. 19 is a representation of such a sequence applied to thefabrication of a single IMod and, by extension, to the fabrication ofarrays of IMods or other microelectromechanical structures. Web source1900 is a roll of the substrate material such as transparent plastic. Arepresentative area 1902 on a section of material from the rollcontains, for the purposes of this description, only a single device.Embossing tool 1904 impresses a pattern of depressions into the plasticsheet. This can be accomplished by a metal master which has theappropriate pattern of protrusions etched on it.

The metal master is mounted on a drum that is pressed against the sheetwith enough pressure to deform the plastic to form the depressions. View1906 illustrates this. Coater 1908 deposits thin layers of materialusing well known thin film deposition processes, such as sputtering orevaporation. The result is a stack 1910 of four films comprising anoxide, a metal, an oxide, and a sacrificial film. These materialscorrespond to the induced absorber IMod design. A tool 1912 dispenses,cures, and exposes photoresist for patterning these layers. Once thepattern has been defined, the film etching occurs in tool 1914.Alternatively, patterning may be accomplished using a process known aslaser ablation. In this case, a laser is scanned over the material in amanner that allows it to be synchronized with the moving substrate. Thefrequency and power of the laser is such that it can evaporate thematerials of interest to feature sizes that are on the order of microns.The frequency of the laser is tuned so that it only interacts with thematerials on the substrate and not the substrate itself. Because theevaporation occurs so quickly, the substrate is heated only minimally.

In this device example, all of the films are etched using the samepattern. This is seen in 1918 where the photoresist has been strippedaway after the application of tool 1916. Tool 1920, is anotherdeposition tool that deposits what will become the structural layer ofthe IMod. Aluminum is one candidate for this layer 1922. This materialmay also include organic materials which exhibit minimal residual stressand which may be deposited using a variety of PVD and PECVD techniques.This layer is subsequently patterned, etched, and stripped ofphotoresist using tools 1924, 1926, and 1928 respectively. Tool 1930 isused to etch away the sacrificial layer. If the layer is silicon, thiscan be accomplished using XeF2, a gas phase etchant used for suchpurposes. The result is the self-supporting membrane structure 1932 thatforms the IMod.

Packaging of the resulting devices is accomplished by bonding flexiblesheet 1933 to the top surface of the substrate sheet. This is alsosupplied by a continuous roll 1936 that has been coated with a hermeticfilm, such as a metal, using coating tool 1934. The two sheets arejoined using bonding tool 1937, to produce the resulting packaged device1940.

Stress Measurement

Residual stress is a factor in the design and fabrication of MEMstructures. In IMods, and other structures in which structural membershave been mechanically released during the fabrication process, theresidual stress determines the resulting geometry of the member.

The IMod, as an interferometric device, is sensitive to variations inthe resulting geometry of the movable membrane. The reflected, or inother design cases transmitted, color is a direct function of the airgapspacing of the cavity. Consequently, variations in this distance alongthe length of a cavity can result in unacceptable variations in color.On the other hand, this property is a useful tool in determining theresidual stress of the structure itself, because the variations in thecolor can be used to determine the variations and degree of deformationin the membrane. Knowing the deformed state of any material allows for adetermination of the residual stresses in the material. Computermodeling programs and algorithms can use two-dimensional data on thedeformation state to determine this. Thus the IMod structure can providea tool for making this assessment.

FIGS. 20A-20G show examples of how an IMod may be used in this fashion.Referrring to FIGS. 20A and 20B, IMods 2000, and 2002, are shown fromthe perspective of the side and the bottom (i.e. viewed through thesubstrate). They are of a double cantilever and single cantilever formrespectively. In this case, the structural material has no residualstresses, and both membranes exhibit no deformation. As viewed throughthe substrate, the devices exhibit a uniform color that is determined bythe thickness of the spacer layer upon which they were formed. Referringto FIGS. 20C and 20D, IMods 2004 and 2006 are shown with a stressgradient that is more compressive on the top than it is on the bottom.The structural membranes exhibit a deformation as a result, and thebottom view reveals the nature of the color change that would result.For example if color region 2016 were green, then color region 2014might be blue because it is closer to the substrate. Conversely, colorregion 2018 (shown on the double cantilever) might be red because it isfarther away. Referring to FIGS. 20E and 20F, IMods 2008 and 2010 areshown in a state where the stress gradient exhibits higher tensilestress on the top than on the bottom. The structural members aredeformed appropriately, and the color regions change as a result. Inthis case, region 2020 is red, while region 2022 is blue.

In FIG. 20G, a system is shown which can be used to quickly andaccurately assess the residual stress state of a deposited film. Wafer2030 comprises an array of IMod structures consisting of both single anddouble cantilevered membranes with varying lengths and widths. Thestructural membranes are fabricated from a material whose mechanical andresidual stress properties are well characterized. Many materials arepossible, subject to the limitations of the requisite reflectivity thatcan be quite low given that the IMods in this case are not to be usedfor display purposes. Good candidates would include materials incrystalline form (silicon, aluminum, germanium) which are or can be madecompatible from a fabrication standpoint, exhibit some degree ofreflectivity, and whose mechanical properties can or have beencharacterized to a high degree of accuracy. These “test structures” arefabricated and released so that they are freestanding. If the materialsare without stress, then the structures should exhibit no colorvariations. Should this not be the case, however, then the color statesor color maps may be recorded by use of a high resolution imaging device2034, which can obtain images of high magnification via optical system2032.

The imaging device is connected to a computer system 2036, upon whichresides hardware and capable of recording and processing the image data.The hardware could comprise readily available high speed processingboards to perform numerical calculations at high rates of speed. Thesoftware may consist of collection routines to collect color informationand calculate surface deformations. The core routine would use thedeformation data to determine the optimal combination of uniform stressand stress gradient across the thickness of the membrane, which iscapable of producing the overall shape.

One mode of use could be to generate a collection of “virgin” testwafers with detailed records of their non-deposited stress states, to beput away for later use. When the need arises to determine the residualstress of a deposited film, a test wafer is selected and the film isdeposited on top of it. The deposited film alters the geometry of thestructures and consequently their color maps. Using software resident onthe computer system, the color maps of the test wafer both before andafter may be compared and an accurate assessment of the residual stressin the deposited film made. The test structures may also be designed tobe actuated after deposition. Observation of their behavior duringactuation with the newly deposited films can provide even moreinformation about the residual stress states as well as the change inthe film properties over many actuation cycles.

This technique may also be used to determine the stress of films as theyare being deposited. With appropriate modification of the depositionsystem, an optical path may be created allowing the imaging system toview the structures and track the change of their color maps in realtime. This would facilitate real-time feedback systems for controllingdeposition parameters in an attempt to control residual stress in thismanner. The software and hardware may “interrogate” the test wafer on aperiodic basis and allow the deposition tool operator to alterconditions as the film grows. Overall this system is superior to othertechniques for measuring residual stress, which either rely onelectromechanical actuation alone, or utilize expensive and complexinterferometric systems to measure the deformation of fabricatedstructures. The former suffers from a need to provide drive electronicsto a large array of devices, and inaccuracies in measuring displacementelectronically. The latter is subject to the optical properties of thefilms under observation, and the complexity of the required externaloptics and hardware.

Discontinuous Films

Another class of materials with interesting properties are films whosestructure is not homogeneous. These films can occur in several forms andwe shall refer to them collectively as discontinuous films. FIG. 21Aillustrates one form of the discontinuous film. Substrate 2100 could bea metal, dielectric, or semiconductor, which has had contours 2104,2106, and 2108 etched into its surface. The contours, comprisingindividual structural profiles which should have a height 2110 that issome fraction of the wavelength of light of interest, are etched usingphotolithographic and chemical etching techniques to achieve profileswhich are similar to those illustrated by, 2104 (triangular), 2106,(cylindrical) and 2108 (klopfenstein taper). The effective diameter ofthe base 2102 of any of the individual profiles is also on the order ofthe height of the pattern. While each contour is slightly different,they all share in common the property that as one traverses from theincident into the substrate, the effective index of refraction goesgradually from that of the incident medium, to that of the filmsubstrate 2100 itself. Structures of this type act as superiorantireflection coatings, compared to those made from combinations ofthin films, because they do not suffer as much from angulardependencies. Thus, they remain highly antireflective from a broaderrange of incident angles.

FIGS. 21B and 21C reveal a coating 2120 that has been deposited onsubstrate 2122 and could also be of a metal, dielectric, orsemiconductor. FIG. 21B depicts a side view of the coating andsubstrate, and FIG. 21C depicts a top view of the coating and substrate.The film, in this case, is still in the early stages of formation,somewhere below 1000 angstroms in thickness. During most depositionprocesses, films undergo a gradual nucleation process, forming materiallocalities that grow larger and larger until they begin to join togetherand, at some point, form a continuous film. 2124 shows a top view ofthis film. The optical properties of films in the early stage differfrom that of the continuous film. For metals, the film tends to exhibithigher losses than its continuous equivalent.

FIGS. 21D and 21E illustrate a third form of discontinuous film. FIG.21D depicts a side view of the film, and FIG. 21E depicts a top view ofthe film. In this case, film 2130 has been deposited on substrate 2132to a thickness, at least a thousand angstroms, such that it isconsidered continuous. A pattern of “subwavelength” (i.e. a diametersmaller than the wavelength of interest) holes 2134 is produced in thematerial using techniques which are similar to the self-assemblyapproach described earlier. In this case, the polymer can act as a maskfor transferring the etch pattern into the underlying material, and theholes etched using reactive ion etch techniques. Because the material iscontinuous, but perforated, it does not act like the early stage film ofFIGS. 21B and 21C. Instead, its optical properties differ from theun-etched film in that incident radiation experiences lower losses andmay exhibit transmission peaks based on surface plasmons. Additionally,the geometry of the holes as well as the angle of incidence andrefractive index of the incident medium may be manipulated to controlthe spectral characteristics of the light that is transmitted. 2136shows a top view of this film. Films such as these are described in thepaper “Control of optical transmission through metals perforated withsubwavelength hole arrays” by Tae Jin Kim. While they are regular instructure, they differ from PBGs.

All three of these types of discontinuous films are candidates forinclusion into an IMod structure. That is to say they could act as oneor more of the material films in the static and/or movable portions ofan IMod structure. All three exhibit unique optical properties which canbe manipulated in ways that rely primarily on the structure and geometryof the individual film instead of a combination of films with varyingthickness. They can be used in conjunction with other electronic,optical, and mechanical elements of an IMod that they could comprise. Invery simple cases, the optical properties of each of these films may bechanged by bringing them into direct contact or close proximity to otherfilms via surface conduction or optical interference. This can occur bydirectly altering the conductivity of the film, and/or by altering theeffective refractive index of its surrounding medium. Thus more complexoptical responses in an individual IMod may be obtained with simplerstructures that have less complex fabrication processes.

Other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.

1. A test structure configured to indicate residual stress, comprising:a reflective membrane connected to a substrate; and an interferometriccavity formed between a portion of the membrane and a portion of thesubstrate, wherein the membrane behaves in a manner according to theresidual stress of the test structure and modulates light indicative ofa degree of residual stress.
 2. The test structure of claim 1, whereinthe substrate comprises glass.
 3. The test structure of claim 2, whereinthe substrate further comprises at least one film layer.
 4. The teststructure of claim 1, wherein the membrane comprises silicon, aluminum,or germanium.
 5. The test structure of claim 1, wherein the membrane isconfigured such that light modulated by the membrane includes colorinformation that indicates the degree of residual stress.
 6. The teststructure of claim 1, wherein the membrane comprises one or more edges,and wherein at least a portion of one edge of the membrane is attachedto the substrate.
 7. The test structure of claim 6, wherein at least aportion of only one edge of the membrane is attached to the substrate,the remaining edges of the membrane being free of attachment.
 8. Thetest structure of claim 1, wherein the membrane comprises at least twoedges, and wherein at least a portion of the two edges are attached tothe substrate.
 9. The test structure of claim 8, wherein the two edgesof the membrane attached to the substrate are nonadjacent to each other.10. The test structure of claim 8, wherein the two edges attached to thesubstrate are on opposite sides of the membrane.
 11. The test structureof claim 1, wherein the membrane is configured as a parallelogram. 12.The test structure of claim 11, wherein two parallel and opposed edgesof the membrane are attached to the substrate.
 13. The test structure ofclaim 1, wherein the membrane is configured in a double cantilever form.14. The test structure of claim 1, wherein the membrane is configured asa single cantilever form.
 15. The test structure of claim 1, wherein themembrane is configured such that a first portion of the membrane isattached to the substrate and a second portion of the membrane deformsbased on the residual stress in the membrane
 16. The test structure ofclaim 1, where the membrane is freestanding.
 17. The test structure ofclaim 1, further comprising means for placing the membrane in anactuated state or relaxed state.
 18. The test structure of claim 1, themembrane having curvature relative to the amount of residual stress. 19.The test structure of claim 18, wherein no appreciable amount ofresidual stress in the membrane is indicated by the membrane being flat.20. A system configured to determine residual stress, comprising: one ormore test structures, each test structure comprising a reflectivemembrane comprising a portion of a deposited film, wherein the teststructure behaves in a manner according to the residual stress of themembrane and modulates light indicative of the degree of residual stressin the deposited film; an imaging system positionable to receivemodulated light reflecting from the one or more test structures andproduce an image associated with the received light; and a computer incommunication with the imaging system, the computer configured toprocess the image and generate information relating to the residualstress of the deposited film.
 21. The system of claim 20, wherein thecomputer is configured to calculate deformation data of the membranebased on the image, and further configured to determine the informationrelating to the residual stress of the deposited film based on thedeformation data.
 22. The system of claim 20, wherein each of the one ormore test structures further comprises an interferometric cavity formedbetween a portion of the membrane and a portion of a substrate.
 23. Thesystem of claim 22, wherein a portion of the membrane of at least one ofthe one or more test structures is attached to the substrate.
 24. Thesystem of claim 22, wherein the substrate comprises at least one filmlayer.
 25. The system of claim 20, wherein the membrane comprises one ormore edges, and wherein at least a portion of one edge of the membraneof at least one or the one or more one test structures is attached to asubstrate.
 26. The system of claim 25, wherein at least a portion ofonly one edge of the membrane of at least one of the one or more teststructures is attached to the substrate, the remaining edges of themembrane being free of attachment.
 27. The system of claim 20, whereinthe membrane comprises two or more edges, and wherein at least a portionof two edges of the membrane of at least of the one or more teststructures are attached to a substrate.
 28. The system of claim 27,wherein the two edges of the membrane connected to the substrate arenonadjacent to each other.
 29. The system of claim 28, wherein the twoedges connected to the substrate are on opposite sides of the membrane.30. The system of claim 20, wherein the imaging system comprises anoptical system and a high resolution imaging device.
 31. The system ofclaim 20, wherein the membrane of at least one test structure isconfigured in a double cantilever form.
 32. The system of claim 20,wherein the membrane of at least one test structure is configured in asingle cantilever form.
 33. The system of claim 20, wherein the membraneis configured as a parallelogram.
 34. The system of claim 33, whereintwo parallel and opposed edges of the membrane are connected to thesubstrate.
 35. The system of claim 20, wherein at least one of the oneor more test structures comprises means for placing the membrane in arelaxed state or an actuated state.
 36. The test structure of claim 20,the membrane having curvature relative to the amount of residual stress.37. The system of claim 20, wherein no appreciable amount of residualstress in the membrane is indicated by the membrane being flat.
 38. Amethod of determining residual stress, the method comprising:interferometrically modulating light with a reflective membrane of atest structure, wherein the membrane behaves in a manner according tothe residual stress of the test structure and modulates light indicativeof the degree of residual stress; receiving the modulated light; anddetermining the residual stress of the test structure based on thereceived modulated light.
 39. The method of claim 38, wherein receivingthe modulated light comprises receiving the modulated light in animaging system.
 40. The method of claim 39, further comprising providingimage data associated with the modulated light for use in determiningthe residual stress of the test structure.
 41. The method of claim 39,further comprising generating the image data based on the modulatedlight, and wherein determining the residual stress comprises determiningdeformation information of the membrane based on the image data, andgenerating residual stress information based on the deformationinformation.
 42. The method of claim 40, wherein determining theresidual stress comprises: determining deformation information of themembrane based on the image data; and generating residual stressinformation based on the deformation information.
 43. The method ofclaim 42, wherein determining deformation information comprisesanalyzing color information in the image data, and wherein the colorinformation is indicative of the deformation of the membrane.
 44. Thetest structure of claim 38, wherein the membrane curves relative to theamount of residual stress.
 45. The system of claim 38, wherein noappreciable amount of residual stress in the membrane is indicated bythe membrane being flat.
 46. A method of determining residual stress ina deposited film, the method comprising: collecting a first set of dataindicating a first residual stress state of the one or more teststructures disposed on a substrate; depositing a film over the one ormore test structures; collecting a second set of data indicating asecond residual stress state of the one or more test structures, thesecond set of data indicating residual stress in the deposited film; anddetermining the residual stress of the deposited film based on comparingthe collected first data and collected second data.
 47. The method ofclaim 46, wherein the first data comprises a first color map and thesecond data comprises a second color map.
 48. The method of claim 46,wherein the second set of data is collected as the film is beingdeposited.
 49. The method of claim 46, wherein the second set of data iscollected in real time.
 50. The method of claim 46, further comprising:configuring a test structure for actuation; actuating the test structureconfigured for actuation after the film is deposited; collecting a thirdset of data indicating information of the residual stress of thedeposited film from the actuated test structure; and determining furtherinformation of the residual stress in the deposited film based on thethird set of data.
 51. The method of claim 50, wherein the third set ofdata comprises a third color map.
 52. A method of manufacturing a teststructure to indicate residual stress, the method comprising depositinga film on a substrate to form a deformable reflective membrane such thatan interferometric cavity is formed between a portion of the membraneand a portion of the substrate, wherein the membrane is configured tobehave in a manner according to the residual stress of the teststructure and modulate light indicative of a degree of residual stress.53. A system configured to determine residual stress in a depositedfilm, comprising: means for interferometrically modulating lightaccording to the degree of residual stress of the deposited film;. meansfor receiving the modulated light; and means for determining theresidual stress of the test structure based on the received modulatedlight.
 54. The system of claim 53, wherein the light modulating meanscomprises a test structure, the test structure comprising a reflectivemembrane attached to a substrate; and an interferometric cavity formedbetween a portion of the membrane and a portion of the substrate,wherein the membrane behaves in a manner according to the residualstress of the device and modulates light indicative of a degree ofresidual stress.
 55. The system of claim 53, wherein the light receivingmeans comprises an imaging system positionable to receive modulatedlight from the test structure and configured to produce image dataassociated with the received modulated light.
 56. The system of claim55, wherein the image data comprises color information indicating adegree of light modulation, and the determining means uses the colorinformation to determine the residual stress.
 57. The system of claim53, wherein the determining means comprises a computer in communicationwith the light receiving means, the computer configured to process theimage data and produce residual stress information relating to thedeposited film based on the image data.
 58. The test structure of claim53, wherein the membrane curves relative to the amount of residualstress.
 59. The system of claim 53, wherein no appreciable amount ofresidual stress in the membrane is indicated by the membrane being flat.